Cognitive component Essay

The cognitive component of SWB involves making judgments of one’s life: either satisfaction with life as a whole, or satisfaction with life domains such as work, family, leisure, health, and finances (Prince, & Prince 2001; Diener et al. , 1999). It can be viewed as how you think about your life (in contrast to the affective component: how you feel about your life). In this study, the cognitive component means the way the elderly perceive, think and assess their life and their beliefs and attitude toward life, world and God. Campbell (1976) suggested that individuals judge their objective situation in each of various life domains according to standards of comparison based on aspiration, expectations, feelings of what would be just, reference group comparisons, personal needs, and personal values. Domain-satisfaction provides useful information about with which aspects of life an individual may be happy or unhappy, but cannot be summed to give an overall impression of life satisfaction. This would mean that it is necessary to assess overall satisfaction with life, as well as life domains (Susan Hird, 2003). An idea that has long captivated writers is that how we perceive and think about the world determines our SWB. In the area of SWB, researchers find that one can dampen or amplify one’s emotions by what one thinks, and thereby experience more or less intense emotions (Larsen, Diener, & Croponzano, 1987). This approach relies on the standards of the individual to determine what is the good life and the personal choices the person make at the moment (Diener, 1984). People might increase their SWB by control of their thoughts. For example, perhaps SWB can be increased by believing in a larger meaning or force in the universe. Support for this proposition comes from findings showing that on average religious people are happier than nonreligious people (e. g. , Ellison, 1983; Myers, 1992, cited in Diener et al. , 1997). The study explored how the elderly think about their life or what thought processes, beliefs and attitudes predominantly helped the elderly to experience a sense of well-being at this point of their lives. Affective Components (Affect Balance) It is the second component or construct of SWB, which corresponds to what we generally understand as happiness. According to (Prince, & Prince 2001) affect is thought of as how happy or unhappy you are. It results from a balance between positive affect and negative affect (Christopher, 1999). As it has been already indicated, when we appraise how much we appreciate the life we live, we estimate our typical affective experience to assess how well we feel generally, which is referred to here in the study as affective component. In summary, the affective component can be thought of as how you feel about your life (Susan Hird, 2003). Suh & Diener (1997) observed that feeling pleasant emotions most of the time and infrequently experiencing unpleasant emotions, even if the pleasant emotions are only mild, is sufficient for high reports of happiness. Although people report being above neutral in mood the majority of the time (Diener & Diener, 1995), intense positive moments are rare even among the happiest individuals. Instead happy people report mild-to-moderate pleasant emotions most of the time when alone or with others and when working or at leisure. One thing is clear, that people need to understand that intense experiences are not the corer stone of a happy life (Diener, 2000). Mood and emotions are called ‘affect’, and there is contradictory evidence as to whether ‘pleasant affect’ and ‘unpleasant affect’ form two independent factors and should be measured separately, or whether they are interdependent (Diener et al. , 1999). The amount of difference between momentary pleasant and unpleasant affect is still debated, but the separability of long-term affective dimensions is less controversial. Diener and Emmons (1984) found that unpleasant and pleasant affect become increasingly separate as the time frame is increased (Diener et al. , 1999). In the case of the institutionalized elderly, the study examined the affective component in general, mainly how they felt generally about their lives that helped them experiencing a sense of well-being in their lives. As indicated by Christopher (1999), it is this second aspect of SWB that corresponds to what we generally understand as happiness and it results from a balance between positive affect and negative affect.

Mgt Module 5

Module 5 – Individual level: motivation concepts and applications 1 Module 5 – Individual level: motivation concepts and applications Learning objectives On successful completion of this module, you should be able to: ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?Define motivation and identify three key elements of motivations Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their current use value Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and management by objectives Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory Demonstrate how organisational justice is a refinement of equity theory Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees Compare contemporary theories of motivations Show how motivation theories are culture bound Learning resourcesText Robbins, SP, Judge, T, Millett, B & Boyle, M 2011, Organisational behaviour, Chapter 7. Introduction to Module 5 Welcome to Module 5 of MGT1000. I give this module about a 4. 5 rating – the theory is heavier going. There are about 22 pages from the text. Also this module is about 7 pages long. There are no must do tasks but there is still an application exercise that can take up as much time as you want to invest in it. The application is a mini essay writing exercise. The mind map that follows illustrates where we are up to in the individual level of the course so far.In this module we will be discussing theories of motivation and their workplace applications. Motivation is a critical issue within workplaces today. It is not sufficient that employees simply turn up at work. Employers want highly productive and motivated employees. You already know that workplace productivity can be enhanced by ensuring a sound fit between employee personality and job requirements, between employer and employee values and  © University of Southern Queensland 2 MGT1000 – Organisational behaviour between employee preferences and the culture and structure of the organisation.You will also realise from previous modules that in creating a motivating workplace it is employee perception of the workplace, rather than the reality of the workplace, that will influence employee performance. In this module you will learn ways that managers can make the workplace more motivating for employees. The most basic premise of this module is that motivation is not a trait like personality, but rather something that managers can encourage or discourage. Module 3 Attitudes and job satisfaction Module 4 Personality and values Module 5 Motivation Absenteeism †¢Job satisfaction †¢Turnover †¢Productivity †¢Organisational citizenship †¢Deviant workplace behaviour This first exercise will give you a chance to clarify your own (everyday) everyday experience of motivation. Learning activity 5. 1 Think of one thing you have been putting off doing. Perhaps you have a friend you have been meaning to contact; perh aps you have some task around the house you have not completed yet. Perhaps you have not been able to maintain your exercise program. Or perhaps you have had difficulty getting all your study completed.Think about these 2 questions 1. Why are you putting yourself under pressure to do this thing? 2. Why haven’t you done this thing yet?  © University of Southern Queensland Module 5 – Individual level: motivation concepts and applications 3 Learning activity 6. 1 de-brief I expect we all have things we have not done that we feel we should have done. So I assume no one had difficulty thinking of something they had put off. The following two definitions of motivation show considerable consistency and can be helpful in understanding your inability to do the task you nominated. We define motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal’ (Robbins, Judge, Millett, & Boyle 2011, p . 176) ‘Motivation refers to the forces either within or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. ’(Gordon, 1999 p. 534) Both definitions seem to regard persistence as essential to motivation. Perhaps you may have lacked the persistence or continuing effort required to complete the task?In addition the definitions refer to enthusiasm or intensity – both of which can be regarded as a measure of ‘how hard’ you were prepared to work (Robbins et al. 2011 p. 176). Perhaps this is where you had your difficulty? Finally, both definitions state there needs to be some kind of purpose – variously described as direction, a goal or a course of action – that is essential to motivation. It would appear because you could articulate what you were supposed to do then at least you did have a goal, even if it is yet to be achieved. The question remains ‘Why haven’t we done this thing if we still feel we need to do it? Perhaps one of the reasons you gave for not completing this task was that it simply was too hard. Indeed the text says no matter how motivated someone is, if they truly lack the ability to do a task then it is impossible for them to do it. So if you truly lack the ability required to do the task then perhaps you should stop trying to do this task. Similarly if one of the reasons you gave for not doing this task was a lack of time, again this may be a legitimate reason for not doing the task. Robbins et al. (2011, p. 176) view motivation as a series of processes.That is, if a person lacks opportunity (for example the required time to complete a task), it does not matter how motivated or how gifted they are they simply will not be able to do the task. But perhaps your task was within your ability arrange and you had the opportunity to do it. The question remains, ‘Why didn’t you do it? ’ The definitions listed above may provide some answers. While Robbins et al. (2011) make no comment on the origins of motivation, Gordon (1999 p. 534) however, refers to motivation as ‘forces either within or external to a person’.These internal and external forces are very important in understanding Herzberg’s theory and its later developments. These two factors (internal and external factors) are the two factors that give Herzberg’s two factor theory its name. Herzberg refers to these 1) external and 2) internal factors as 1) extrinsic or hygiene factors and 2) intrinsic factors or motivators respectively. These two factors are like the oil and petrol in your car. They are quite separate, but you need both to be at the right level for the car to work well.In a car you have a petrol gauge that indicates if your tank is full or empty. It indicates if you have petrol or no petrol. So Herzberg refers to his 2 factors in the same terms. For example if you have no motivators (like no petrol) this is refer red to as a state of ‘no satisfaction’. If you have motivators (like a full tank of petrol) you have ‘satisfaction’. Interestingly, Herzberg does not regard satisfaction as the opposite of dissatisfaction. So let  © University of Southern Queensland 4 MGT1000 – Organisational behaviour e confirm, a lack of satisfaction is referred to by Herzberg as being a state of ‘no satisfaction’ not a state of dissatisfaction. The jargon in this theory is a little confusing at first, but Herzberg is making an important point. When you understand that point the jargon is easy to understand. Again consider the reasons you gave for not acting and the reasons you gave for continuing to put pressure on yourself. According to Herzberg’s two factor theory (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 178–80) only intrinsic factors are truly motivating. Intrinsic factors amount to way the task makes you feel.For example, if you stated the job is too boring or not very enjoyable that is an example of a task that is simply not motivating. That is why you lacked motivation and ultimately did not complete the task – it was simply not an intrinsically rewarding task. According to Herzberg extrinsic or hygiene factors will never truly motivate you to complete a task (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 178–80). So even if for example, one of the reasons you gave to complete the task was that you would be paid to complete it, then although you may have found the payment acceptable, it could not actually motivate you to do the task.The pay could only ever be experienced by you as good pay or bad pay for the job involved. In either event the pay itself would not motivate you to do the job – only the job’s intrinsic qualities and opportunities can truly motivate. There are many critics of Herzberg’s theory and his original research methods (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 178)and also the other earlier theories of motivation. For examp le refer to Robbins et al. (2011, p. 177) for a critique of Maslow’s theory.The text provides an overview of contemporary theories of motivation that have a reasonable degree of research validity. These theories address employee motivation and include the Self-determination theory, Goal-setting theory, Self-efficacy theory, Reinforcement theory, Equity theory and Expectancy theory. These theories provide guidelines for managers about how to enhance workplace motivation in their employees. Self-efficacy theory, for instance, argues that ‘an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 186) influences their performance.According to this theory, employees with low selfefficacy (self belief) will exert less effort when they receive negative feedback whereas employees with high self-efficacy will increase their effort (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 187-80). Managers who focus on increasing self-efficacy in employees by setting difficult goals for them and encouraging them to perform better, can expect increased employee performance. You can see that the goal-setting theory is also applicable here – setting specific and difficult goals and providing feedback can lead to higher performance (Robbins et al. 011, p. 184). You will also read this week about ‘Equity’ theory which takes quite a different view of what motivates or ‘de-motivates’ us. Equity theory’s basic tenant is that the perception of equitable reward (such as salary) is quite essential to motivation. Most simply stated if you as an employee feel you are relatively poorly treated – for example, poorly paid as compared with others – then your motivation will suffer. In your reading you will be exposed to the mechanism of the ‘comparable worth’ as a way to create rewards systems for jobs that create equity in the workplace.Finally, you will read about expectancy theory this week which takes another quite different view of motivation. Expectancy theory is all about the expectancies or in lay terms ‘expectations’ employees have about their work and its rewards. If an employee 1) does not expect (or believe) they have the ability to complete the job to the required standard and or 2) does not expect (or believe) that the organisation will recognise their work when it is completed to the required standard and or 2) does not expect (or believe) the reward the organisation offers is worthwhile, then the employee’s motivation will suffer.You will read  © University of Southern Queensland Module 5 – Individual level: motivation concepts and applications 5 how expectancy theory can be applied to the workplace through the use of flexible benefits that allow employees to work towards rewards they truly value. Learning objectives from the text ? ? Define motivation and identify three key elements of motivations – Read ‘De fining motivation’ page 176. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their current use value – Read ‘Early theories of motivation’ page 176 – 181, up to the end of ‘McClelland’s theory of needs’, page 181.Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards– Read ‘Contemporary theories of motivation’ page 181 – 3. Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and management by objectives – Read page 184 – 188, up to the end of ‘Self-efficacy theory’ on page 188. Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory – Read ‘Reinforcement theory’ page 188 – 9. Demonstrate how organisational justice is a refinement of equity theory – Read ‘Equity theory/organisational justice’ page 189 – 92.Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees – Read ‘Expectancy t heory’ page 193 – 4 and ‘Flexible benefits; Developing a benefits package’ page 222. Compare contemporary theories of motivations – Read ‘Integrating contemporary theories of motivation’ page 194 – 5. Show how motivation theories are culture bound – Read ‘Global Implications’ page 196. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? We also suggest that you read Summary and Implications for Managers’ that provides you with a good summary of the theories covered in the readings.Application exercise This week’s application exercise is one I have used previously with students. You are asked to write a 5 paragraph essay titled ‘The day I hated my job more than I thought humanly possible’ or an essay titled ‘The day I loved my job more than I thought humanly possible’. In either case use Herzberg’s theory to explain why you hated or loved your job so much on that day. This is a quick exercise to get yo u thinking about 1) how to structure an essay and 2) how to apply theory to a case study.I have attached an example of an essay submitted by a previous student to help you. What follows are the quick tips on how to write a good OBM essay that were covered in module 2.  © University of Southern Queensland 6 MGT1000 – Organisational behaviour A good OBM essay has four main parts. ? ? You will always need a one paragraph introduction that states the overall theme of your essay and outlines the content of the essay. This will be the first paragraph of the essay. This will be followed by a series of paragraphs that present the real contents of your essay.This is sometimes referred to as the body of the essay. In this case this will only be 3 paragraphs. (You can have more if you really need them, but this is meant to be a short and sweet exercise to get the brain cells going – not a marathon). These will include the facts of your best or worst day at work and your referen ces to Herzberg’s theory that explain the experience. Visit this webpage at the USQ Library and follow the clicks for information on how to cite sources in essays using the Harvard Referencing system .This will be followed by a one paragraph conclusion that restates the main theme of your paper, summarises the main points raised in the body of your paper and ends with a strong ‘concluding’ sentence This will be followed by a ‘List of references’. This is a list of the full bibliographical details or any source (for example text book or journal article) that you cite in the essay. I expect in this essay you would only list the text as a source. ? ? A good OBM essay also includes theory that has been applied to the case study.I suggest you use the three sentence formula listed below to apply theory to a case study. In each paragraph include: 1. One or two sentences containing a bite size piece of theory 2. Followed by one or two sentences containing a bite size piece of case study 3. Followed by a linking sentence – that explains how exactly the theory is linked to the case study. An example 1. Bite size piece of theory According to Herzberg jobs that afford opportunities for growth can potentially be a source of job satisfaction (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 179) 2. Bite size piece of case study I certainly ound my job at that time challenging in a positive way. I was involved in a short-term, cutting edge project aiming to develop a completely new range of client services. 3. Linking sentence. My involvement in the client services project gave me an excellent opportunity for professional growth. My positive experience of my job at that time was therefore highly consistent with Herzberg’s notion of a job with job satisfaction. The same material presented as a paragraph. According to Herzberg jobs that afford opportunities for growth can potentially be a source of job satisfaction (Robbins et al. 011, p. 179. ) I certain ly found my job at that time challenging in a positive way. I was involved in a short-term, cutting edge project aiming to develop a completely new range of client services. My involvement in the  © University of Southern Queensland Module 5 – Individual level: motivation concepts and applications 7 client services project gave me an excellent opportunity for professional growth. My positive experience of my job at that time was therefore highly consistent with Herzberg’s notion of a job with job satisfaction.You may have to go through a few more drafts of the paragraph to get it saying exactly what you want it to, but that is the basic process. Finally, you may be wondering how to relate bits of theory to bits of case study. You might find a pen and paper tool like this one below useful. In the left hand column you will see the motivators and hygiene factors listed. (This is the theory you are expected to use in this essay). In the right column there is room for you to list the elements of your story that relate to these factors. You do not need to have an entry next to each piece of theory.The idea is that you would look at the completed grid and then decide what the pattern is. Did your job have lots of problems with the motivators? Were there additional problems with the hygiene factors? What was the overall pattern is the case study? This then becomes the theme of your essay. Motivators Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Case study elements Hygiene factors Company policy and administration Supervision Relationship with supervisor Work conditions Relationship with peers Personal life Relationship with subordinates Status Security SalaryCase study elements  © University of Southern Queensland 8 MGT1000 – Organisational behaviour Summary This module has focussed on motivation as a process that managers need to understand in order to try to create motivating jobs and reward systems in the workplace. You have covered both earlier theories of motivation and contemporary theories. You have also had an opportunity to put pen to paper and attempt an essay in this course. Presentation 5. 1 Ch7_motivation Reference list Gordon, J 1999, Organizational behaviour: a diagnostic approach, 6th edn, Prentice Hall, NJ.Mann, S 2004, ‘People-work: emotion management, stress and coping’, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 205–21, viewed 12 December, EBSCOhost database Academic Search Premier, item: AN13121438. McShane, S & Von Glinow, M 2005, Organizational behaviour, 3rd edn, McGraw-Hill Irwin, Boston. Robbins, SP, Judge, T, Millett, B & Boyle, M 2011, Organisational behaviour, 6th edn, Pearson Education, French’s Forest. Gordon, J 1999, Organizational behaviour: a diagnostic approach, 6th edn, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.  © University of Southern Queensland

Business law Aldi Supermarkets Negligent - Free Sample

To prove the above issues, the analysis of the law of negligence is required. In Donoghue v Stevenson (1932), the law of negligence was analyzed for the first time wherein it was held by Lord Atkin that no harm must be caused to the consumer for the products supplied by the manufactures. So to prove negligence the basic requirements include: (RN Moles, 2016) Once proved, the defendant is negligent. But, if the defendant can prove that the damage which is caused to the plaintiff is not by the performance of the defendant alone but the plaintiff has also acted negligently and it is her negligence which has also resulted in the contribution of damage then the contributory defense can be availed. The liability of the defendant can be reduced proportionately Kalokerinos v Burnett  [1996]. It is submitted that the Aldi Supermarkets is negligent and must pensate Tamara. The negligence is established because of the following reasons: Thus, Aldi can be casted with the DUTY OF CARE that it must furnish against Tamara. So, all the above facts when applied to the case laws reveal that the Aldi Supermarkets is totally negligent in its actions because the duty of care is not furnish by its properly and which has resulted in causing loss to Tamara. But, Aldi Supermarkets cannot be held liable for all the losses and it has a defense of contributory negligence. Aldi can prove that though it has not catered its duty properly which has resulted in the loss of Tamara. But, the loss that is caused to Tamara is exaggerated by her actions as well. If Tamara would have not run very fast on the aisle of the supermarket in order to grab the chocolate knowing the fact that the market has frequent visitors and that some other customers is also approaching the chocolate section, then, the loss that is suffered by her can be reduced. Tamara has contributed because she ran very fast knowing the fact that it was a wet day and there are chances that she might get sip if she will run fast. Thus, Tamara has contributed to her own loss. So, Aldi can rely on the defense of contributory negligence. The Aldi has not provided adequate care to the market visitors and this breach of care has resulted in loss to Tamara. So, there is clear negligence on the part of Aldi. But, Aldi can prove that Tamara was also negligent in her actions and has contributed to her own loss by running fast on aisle on the wet day. Atkins et al. (2014) Ethics and Law for Australian Nurses. Cambridge University Press. Barnett K, (2014) Equitable pensation and remoteness: not so remote from the mon law after all’. P Latimer (2012) Australian Business law, CCH Australia Limited. R N Moles (2016) Law Reports, McAlister or Donoghue (Pauper) v. Stevenson (1932). Burnie Port Authority v General Jones [1994]. Naxakis v Western General Hospital (1999). Wyong Shire Council v Shirt  [1980].

Anything of your choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Anything of your choice - Essay Example Brainstorm first. Make sure that you have a valid subject. For example: I want to write a letter to my clients about the price increase of our commodities. Draw a clear subject in mind. Know your audience. You can only craft an effective business letter if you know who will be reading your document. You can pick a template, your style, your tone if you know the taste of your readers. Are you writing for the youth council? Customize your message that fits their interest. Do you want to close a good deal with the City’s Engineering Division? Know engineering jargons if necessary. It is crucial to define the people whom you are talking to. Do not send a business letter containing a sea of words. Cut down ideas into pieces. You have to use the rich editor of a Microsoft Word in order to create a navigable document. It is advisable to create a template. This template contains headings, subheadings, ordered list or unordered list to mark the path. It is like a website. Your favorite website should be user friendly. It has a visible navigation menu on the top so that users can easily navigate from one page to another. A readable document should provide a way for readers to read the document by subject or ideas. It will help them navigate from one idea to another. Let’s define our template. It is advisable to create a template for effective business writing, as earlier stated. The document should contain heading for the main subject, and subheadings for the ideas that support the main subject. Make them bold, or increase the font size of your headings to emphasize them. In this way, you can disseminate your message clearly by key points. In addition, it’s appropriate to mark important details with bullets. Make use of ordered list or an unordered list. This is applicable if you are listing information in random order. Here is a sample of bullets (unordered list). Effective business writing entails more revenue. A revenue

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 4

Education - Essay Example For instance, in order to answer the question about the pregnant boy, his photo was missing but after some time, the photo becomes visible. Laying emphasis on the information, I felt the information on it had a good description and the photos were informative. Reading The information described in the website is of exceptional help for public. It is appealing to the target group, which is the teenage bracket. From teenage, the author clearly explains the method that reduces the chances of having unwanted pregnancies and STIs infection. He uses an easy language and vivid description in explaining on the various prevention measures and clearly stating how the pregnancy the method works. The author uses diagrams in illustrating how to wear a male or a female condom to reduce the chances of it breaking and thus making it useless. The language used in the context is pure and appealing for public. The topic itself is also highly appealing since many teenagers; especially those in active sex engrossed in the idea of protecting themselves from unwanted pregnancy Example The examples given by the author are particularly appealing and easy to comprehend. He states, describe and explains how different methods of pregnancy prevention methods applied. This example not only helps the target age bracket, but the public can use them. The use of clear and uncomplicated language is ideal for anyone who is in need of health information greatly benefits from the website. The examples provided by the author are also appealing in the manner that they are readily available, true and of great importance. The author describes several methods used in order reduces chances of having STIs and unwanted pregnancies. The methods discussed include the use of condoms as birth control methods.... This paper approves that the language used is appropriate for the target group because there are no uses of medical terminologies. The language used is single and clear in describing the method needs to be used and its effectiveness. The author also puts himself in the shoes of the target group and uses language that they best understand. The language used also is in a manner that every person with the slightest education can read and comprehend what the website is emphasizing. The simple language used makes it possible for the author, to communicate the message to many people as possible without fear of alienation of a certain group due to their level of literacy. The author gives helpful tip in self-care management. Most of the teenagers risk their safety for fear that their partners may mot trusts them. The authors illustrate how someone would use a polite language especially when the other partner does not see the need of using a condom. The author also illustrates how a partner can help the other partner who does not appreciate the use of condoms. This essay makes a conclusion that the publisher of the article is also a humorous character. He or she knows how to get the attention of any reader. The pictures displayed at the homepage leaves one wondering what the article could be talking about and due to curiosity that forces one to read the message, he originally intended to deliver. The creativity of the homepage page also makes anyone yearning read more of the article thus delivering his message. The publisher also uses an easy language where anyone who knows how to read benefits from the website

Comparative Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility Assignment

Comparative Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility - Assignment Example To understand more about comparative advantage, the author will feature in an example. In country A, a worker using machinery produces 4 shirts and 4 skirts per hour while in country B which has less machinery, a worker produces 4 shirts and 2 skirts per hour. It is evident that the less efficient country has a comparative advantage in producing shirts. With the absence of trade, the opportunity cost per shirt is 2 skirts. Bearing in mind that the more efficient country has a 1:1 trade-off, the cost per shirt may reduce to as low as 1 skirt depending on the volume of trade. The more efficient country has a comparative advantage in skirts. It would, therefore, make economic sense if the country shifted its shirts production resources to produce more skirts. It would then trade them for shirts. In economics, the net benefits realized by each country are called the gains from trade. The idea of comparative advantage was first mentioned and developed in Adam Smith’s book The Wealt h of Nations. Here, he puts the theory as follows: if a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than when we ourselves can make it, it is better to buy it from them with gains realized from our own industry. This has to be employed or designed in a way that we have some advantage. David Ricardo, in his 1817 book, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, investigated the advantages and alternatives as well as relative opportunity in an example involving Portugal and England. In his book, he noted that in Portugal, it was possible to produce both cloth and wine using less labor compared to producing the same quantities in England. He also noted that the relative costs met in producing those two goods were different in the two countries.

Economics of Leisure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Economics of Leisure - Essay Example He believed that the remaining hours could be in pursuit of writing, printing and innovation. In 1930s, John Maynard Keynes, one of the neo-classical economists predicted that people would only need to work for less than 15 hours in a week by 2030. 84 years after Keynes prediction, it appears that people are working even more hours with the advancement of technology. Questions asked by neo classical economists are whether the trends conform to economic priori as adopted by the classical. The discussion in this paper will negate the notion that advancement in technology associated with economic growth results into high leisure hours. It will also discuss the reasons as to why this happens. Economic development which entails the advancement of nation’s institutions has leisure at its focal point. Most nations that are on the take off mainly focus on the economic growth and not development. The developed countries on other hand are mainly focused on enhancing the living standards of its people. It means that leisure remains at the focal point. Despite this, people from these countries still have reduced number of leisure hours. There are however a number of reasons that causes increase and reduced working and leisure hour respectively (Gary 2007). Firstly, the development of technology entails the advancement of consumer goods. Most people are often amazed by new technological advancement such as personal computer, digital camera, internet among other technologies. Therefore, the only way people must maintain this level of technology is to work more hours (Cooke 1994). Research has proved that people will rarely stop working when they have free time, instead they will yearn to get more. As human makes money, there will be a need to make more. Most people have realised that working faster will give them an opportunity to make more money. Through this, most people have realized that their ability of

Art history, native american art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Art history, native american art - Essay Example This paper will discuss the native history of American art. Native American art comprises of oil, pottery, basketry, wood, leather and water or sand paintings (Phillips and Berlo 10). The creativity that is involved in American art is regarded as sacred and limitless. According to the Americans, the use of art is continually identified as a form of expression. Their artistic works present their love for the environment. In their native way of life, the Americans considered art as a symbol. They usually made their artwork through the use of materials such as fabric, clay, feathers and rocks among others. In the Native American lifestyle, basket weaving was regarded as the most popular form of artistic work (Phillips and Berlo 13). In this case, basket weaving served a twofold purpose. Most of the American artists used corn husks and reeds to make complex woven baskets. Thereafter, the material was dyed to create tribal art on the basket. The final product was a beautiful, artistic piece of work that was also used as a normal basket. The weaving practice was quite prevalent in the Native American era, since; women would spend hours weaving to create colorful baskets. In most cases, the baskets were made from vegetable fibers (Phillips and Berlo 13). Moreover, there were other materials that were used in weaving of the baskets. The most common materials that were used apart from vegetable fibers include cedar bark, native grass and ivory carvings. The material used in making the basket defined the type of basket being made. Recently, weaving leads to ecological activism. Individuals from the Navajo tribe were well conversant with the weaving practice. They even made blankets from woven reeds. Most literary scholars assert that, the Native Americans were the first individuals to design beautiful implements. Furthermore, every artistic object they made entailed a detailed rationale. They developed different forms of artistic

Please read the instructions carefully Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Please read the instructions carefully - Article Example It should be an increase of $0.5 billion from a decade ago. Most of the adhesives used in cars include: crestomer advantage 30, UV-curing, and crestabond M1-05. They are proven to be reliable with long term bond strength, durability, and toughness. The clean motion AB has used them for designing the Zbee electricity vehicle. The adhesives have made Zbee vehicle very light to be powered by an electric motor that use 4KW (â€Å"Adhesives Increase†). This has reduced fuel consumption for urban transportation. Adhesives are more efficient in joining aluminum materials with other metals such as steel where weld cannot be used. In addition, they are one-component and solvent-free materials. This makes them easy and safe to be integrated with other manufacturing materials. In the automotive industry, adhesives assemble critical devices such as seat belt monitoring switches and air bag deactivation switches (Uske and

Risk management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Risk management - Research Paper Example nstance are events that create potential threats and uncertainty to an organizational priority, while at the same time tainting the overall reputation, image and identity of that organization. Communication crises, on the other hand involve the visual, written, printed or verbal interaction that an organization has with the target audience probable after the occurrence of a crisis. Crisis management, therefore, is a process that involves a company dealing with certain critical events and uncertainties that threaten to harm or disrupt the organizational working course, the public and the company’s stakeholders. Crisis management is a practise that begun in early 1980s after several multinational companies encountered defining moments that led to several business closures worldwide. In public relations, crisis management plays a fundamental role. Nevertheless, it is important to understand the management of crisis by identifying the different types of crises that may befall a company. Crises are disasters that characterize the actual cause of operational difficulty in an organization. A number of types of disasters or crises are possible in several industries (Ushanov, 2010). Natural disasters are caused by exceptional natural conditions like floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes, droughts, poverty, and storms. Technological crisis arise from human activities concerning scientific application s that may be faulty. Unlike in the natural disasters, it is possible to hold individuals accountable for technological mishaps. Organizational crisis are those that involve disorganization in the organizational workplace, commonly arising from deception, misconduct and inappropriate managerial skills. Other types of crisis include the rumours, confrontational crisis, terrorist attacks and violence in the workplace. It is extremely hazardous for companies to overlook the possibilities of crisis befalling their organization. The uncertainties and threats that

Determining the position of unknown element X in the Reactivity Series Essay Example for Free

Determining the position of unknown element X in the Reactivity Series Essay To determine the position of Element X in the reactivity series Hypothesis The reactivity series is the arrangement of elements according to their reactivity. The most reactive element is placed at the top and the least reactive at the bottom. The elements at the top can displace elements below them from their compounds In the experiment, element X will either have elements more reactive or less reactive or both. Based on this, the position of the unknown element can be found out. Assuming that the element given is not potassium, then potassium will displace X from its compound; thus we can say that potassium is more reactive than X; and X is below potassium in the reactivity series. Assuming that copper is less reactive than X; X will displace copper from its compound. This means that X is higher than copper in the reactivity series than copper. In the experiment, the enthalpy (temperature) change will also show how reactive element X is. For example if X is right above Zinc in the reactivity series i.e. element X is aluminium, then the temperature difference between reacting Al with CuSO4 will be more than reacting Al with ZnSO4 or FeSO4. This is because as the distance (number of elements in between between) the elements increases there is more difference in the reactivity level of the selected elements. When ?H (?Heat) is +ve, the reaction taking place is exothermic and when ?H is -ve, the reaction will be endothermic. When the number of element between the elements reacting is more, then ?H of the reaction will also be more. For example if we take Zinc as element X, then Zinc is more reactive than Lead; but Zinc is even more reactive than Copper. This is because Copper is further below Lead in the reactivity series. Thus a reaction between Zinc and a Copper compound will be more reactive ( will have a higher ?H) than a reaction between Zinc and Lead. When ?E (?Energy) is +ve, the reaction taking place is endothermic and when ?E is -ve, the reaction will be exothermic. The reason behind the nature of ?H stated previously is the ?E (?Energy) of the reaction. Again; more the number of elements between the reactants (according to the Reactivity Series) the lower the value of ?E i.e. more exothermic the reaction is. This is due to the type of bonds present in various compounds. Taking the pervious example, a reaction between Zinc a Copper compound will give a lower ?E than a reaction between Zinc a Lead compound. Thus such reactions are more apparent. Variables Independent The Metal Compound used to react with Element X The metal compound used to react with Element X was varied as this variation of the metal will help us determine the position of element X. Dependent Whether a reaction takes place or not When different metal compounds are used, it is not necessary that a reaction takes place every time. The occurrence of a reaction depends on the metal present in the compound used. Energy Change (?E) ?E depends on the compound used. In different compounds there are different types of bonds present and also every bond has a different energy level. Enthalpy Change (?H) ?H depends on ?E. If ?E is -ve, then the reaction is exothermic; if ?E is +ve, then the reaction will be endothermic. Controlled Volume of the Metal Compound taken The volume of the metal compound taken must be kept constant as varying volumes can affect the final temperature. Size of Element X strip The size of the strip of Element X must also be kept constant as varying lengths can again affect the final temperature. Apparatus 1 Strip of Element X 7 Test tubes 5ml of CuSO4 5ml of FeSO4 5ml of MgSO4 5ml of PbNO3 5ml of KSO4 5ml of AgNO3 5ml of ZnSO4 Procedure 1. Take a strip of Element X and cut it into 7 equal pieces 2. Pour 5ml of CuSO4 into a test tube 3. Put a thermometer into one test CuSO4 and measure the temperature 4. Now put a piece of Element X into the test tube and measure ?H 5. Repeat Steps 3 4 for FeSO4; MgSO4; PbNO3; KSO4; AgNO3 ZnSO4 Diagrams Results Compound Reaction Initial Temperature (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) Final Temperature (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) ?H (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) KSO4 No 21 21 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ MgSO4 No 21 21 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ ZnSO4 No 22 22 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ FeSO4 No 21 21 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ PbNO3 Yes 21 22 2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ CuSO4 Yes 22 25 3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ AgNO3 Yes 21 26 5à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Graph Discussion The strip of element X given to us was shiny, this indicates that element X is not very reactive. Reactive metals such as aluminium usually form a metal oxide layer on top of them thus losing their luster. When Element X was put in sulphate of potassium (which is a clear solution), the solution remained clear, and the piece of Element X also remained shiny; thus indicating no reaction. Element X behaved similarly for sulphates of Magnesium, Zinc Iron. A piece of Element X into PbNO3, after a lot of time, the solution started to become cloudy (white precipitate), indicating a reaction. In this reaction the ?H was +1à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C. In CuSO4, the piece of Element X was deposited with black precipitate all over. Also the solution becomes lighter blue as compared to the pure CuSO4(aq). It was a very slow process. In AgNO3, the solution turned cloudy (black) immediately after suspending the piece of Element X. If we observe the table below carefully, we notice that Element X did not react with K, Mg, Zn and Fe. But it reacted with Pb, Cu Ag. This means that element X is Sn; because the reactivity series goes as follows: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au. Compound Chemical Equation Energy Equation ?E KSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) CuSO4(aq) AgNO3(aq) As I stated in my hypothesis, that the further apart the elements are (in the Reactivity Series) the lower the ?E is. This means that the reactions are more apparent (vigorous) and also more heat is produced in such reactions. Conclusion From this experiment, I conclude that the Element X given to me is below Iron and above Lead in the reactivity series i.e. the element is Tin. I also conclude that the further apart the elements are (in the Reactivity Series) the higher the ?H and lower the ?E. I also conclude that such reactions are more reactive (apparent) as compared to those between element with a lower number of elements between them. Evaluation In this experiment, if the mass of element X would have been measured and then used for reactions the reactions would have been more accurate and reliable.

Theories of Keynesian Economics

Theories of Keynesian Economics Origin Keynesian economic is a macroeconomic model that used to identify the equilibrium level, and examine disruptions, total production and income. Equilibrium is when total production and income intersect with the total expenditures. The Keynesian model has three basic variations designated by several macroeconomic sectors such as two-sector, three-sector, and four-sector. Keynesian model also frequently presented in the form of injections and leakages in addition to the standard total expenditures format. Keynesian model used to study some important topics and issues such as multipliers, business cycle, fiscal policy, and monetary policy. Keynesian model normally presented as the Keynesian cross-intersection between the total expenditures line and 45 degree line. The theory was the standard macroeconomics analysis since the Great Depression of early 1980s and throughout the mid-1900s. The theory still counting to provide important insight into the working of the macroeconomic despite cross-intersection was largely substituted by total market analysis which is measured by aggregate supply and aggregate demand. Keynesian economics is established by John Maynard Keynes. The theory believe that total demand take an important role in business-cycle instability and recessions. Keynesian economics points to unrestricted government policies, especially fiscal policy as the key of stabilizing business cycle. There are some basic principles of Keynesian economics such as the General Theory of Employment, Money and Interest in Keynes’ book, published in 1936. These principles has launched the modern study of macroeconomics and worked as a conductor for macroeconomic theory and macroeconomic policies for few decades. Assumptions There are three key assumptions of Keynesian economics. First assumption if rigid prices. Keynesian economics assumes that prices is inflexible, especially in the downward direction which can stop markets to reach equilibrium. Next assumption is effective demand. Keynesian economics is according to concept of effective demand, the principle of consumption expenditures are due to disposable income that available from the household sector instead of income that available at full employment. Lastly is saving and investment determinants. Keynesian economics also believes that interest rate would affected saving and investment. In addition, household saving is depend on household income and business investment is depend on the expected profitability of production. Highlights Macroeconomic is a separate entity operating by its own principles and the standard of microeconomic market principles do not necessarily apply. Changes in total demand is the primary source that causes business-cycle instability. Markets do not reach equilibrium automatically, so full employment is not guaranteed. Persistent unemployment problems, including those taking place during the Great Depression, result due to lack of total demand. The method to sustain full employment is through government intervention, for example, government apply fiscal policy to changes government spending. Four Macroeconomic Sectors The foundation of the Keynesian model is built by the four macroeconomic sector including household, business, government, and foreign on their expenditures for total production. The four sectors are household, firms, government and foreign. Household sector refer to everyone in the economy; consumption expenditure refer to their expenses on production used for satisfaction. Business sector refer to firms that produce output; investment expenditures refer to their expenses on capital goods. Government sector refer to federal, state, and local government; government purchases refer to their expenses on production used to offer government services. Foreign sector refer to all households, businesses, and government beyond the political boundaries of the domestic economy; net exports refer to their expenditure contribution. Keynesian Equilibrium Like most economic models, Keynesian model is mainly focus on equilibrium. In general, equilibrium is when the balance between opposing forces which remains unchanged as long as another force interferes. Equilibrium is when demand meet supply in the market. Demand force is consumers who normally looking for low price and supply force is sellers who normally demand high price. In the macroeconomic, equilibrium is a balance between total expenditures and total production. There are particulars of equilibrium in the Keynesian model. Firstly, Keynesian equilibrium is a balance between total expenditures and total production. Total expenditures are the sum of expenditure on all four macroeconomic sectors. Total production is the sum of market value of all final goods and services. Secondly, the adjustment tool that reaches or maintains equilibrium is total production. If total expenditures are different to total production, then total production should make changes to meet balance. On the other hand, the adjustment tool for the total market model is the price level. If total demand is different to total supply in the market, then the price level should increase or decrease to meet balance. However, price level is an external force in Keynesian model. Thirdly, Keynesian equilibrium is only a balance between total expenditures and total production. Other aggregate markets like resource markets does not need to be in equilibrium. Shortage and surpluses can exist and always in resource markets. Therefore, full employment is not reach automatically with Keynesian equilibrium. Three Variations The Keynesian model has three common variations, each variations established on a different combination of the four macroeconomic sectors. Two sector model is the simplest Keynesian model which only refer to the household and business sectors, also called as the private sector. This variation is often used to demonstrate the basic operation of the model, including changes for equilibrium and the multiplier process. Two sector model gains the role of encouraged expenditures by household consumption and the role of self-directed expenditures by business investment. Three sector model probably is the most generally analysed variation of the Keynesian model. This variation adds the government sector into the household and business sectors. This variation is used to examine government stabilization policies, especially how fiscal policy apply in government purchases and taxes that could close the gaps of recessionary and inflationary. Four sector model consists of all four macroeconomic sectors such as household, business, government, and foreign. Interaction between domestic economy and the foreign sector often used to capture by four sector model, and also offers basis for detailed, empirically estimated models of the macroeconomics. The Multiplier An important moment of analysis carry out using Keynesian model is the multiplier. Cumulatively reinforcing encouraged interaction between consumption and production that increases self-directed expenditure changes, investment, government spending, and exports is basic of Keynesian multiplier. The core of the multiplier is that pretty small changes in independent expenditures cause fairly large overall changes in total production and income. The resulting changes in total production are typically a â€Å"multiple† of the first expenditure changes, hence the term â€Å"multiplier.† To understand how the multiplier procedure, reflect the Keynesian cross equilibrium presented. At total production of $12 trillion, total expenditures line (AE) intersects with the 45 degree line (Y=AE). This production level would change if the total expenditures line shifts. The subsequent multiplier is due to marginal propensity to consume. Increases in government purchases would increases production and income, which then encourages increase in consumption based on marginal propensity to consume. Increase in consumption would cause further changes in production and income, which then brings more impacts in consumption. Thus, a larger multiplier is based on larger marginal propensity to consume.

Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching

Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching 2.1 Belief Research In the mid-1970s a new body of research began to emerge that worked to describe teachers thoughts, judgments and decisions as the cognitive processes that shaped their behaviors (Calderhead, 1996, Clark and Peterson, 1986; Dann, 1990). As a consequence of this, a surge of interest in the area of teacher belief systems has appeared (Pajares, 1992). This research â€Å"has helped to identify the nature and complexity of the teachers work , and helped to provide ways of thinking about the processes of change and support† (Calderhead, 1996, p.721). Researchers found that teaching could not be characterized simply as behaviors that were linked to thinking done before and during the activity but rather that the thought process of teaching included a much wider and richer mental context. As Shavelson and Stern (1981, p.479) explained, research on teacher cognition made â€Å"the basic assumption that teachers thoughts, judgments, and decisions guide their teaching behavior†. Kagan (1990, p. 420) noted that teacher cognition is somewhat ambiguous, because researchers invoke the term to refer to different products, including â€Å"teachers interactive thoughts during instruction; thought during lesson planning, implicit beliefs about students, classrooms and learning; reflections about their own teaching performance; automized routines and activities that form their instructional repertoire; and self-awareness of procedures they use to solve classrooms problems†. Currently, there is increasing recognition that the beliefs individuals hold are the best indicators of the decisions they make during the course of everyday life (Bandura, 1986). Pajares (1992, p. 307) argues that the investigation of teachers beliefs should be a focus of educational research and can inform educational practice in ways that prevailing research agendas have not and cannot. Educational researchers trying to understand the nature of teaching and learning in classrooms have usefully exploited this focus on belief systems. The research of Jakubowski and Tobin (1991) suggests that teachers metaphors and beliefs not only influence what teachers do in the classroom, but that changes in these same metaphors and beliefs can result in changes in their practices. A belief can be defined as a representation of the information someone holds about an object, or a â€Å"persons understanding of himself and his environment† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.131). This object can â€Å"be a person, a group of people, an institution, a behavior, a policy, an event, etc., and the associated attribute may be any object, trait, property, quality, characteristic, outcome, or event† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.12). While Rokeach (1972) defined a belief as â€Å"any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does, capable of being preceded by the phrase ‘I believe that† (p.113), Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined a belief system as a hierarchy of beliefs according to the strength about a particular object. Researchers exploring teachers beliefs at the primary and secondary levels have used a number of definitions: â€Å"the highly personal ways in which a teacher understands classrooms, students, the nature of learning, the teachers role in the classroom, and the goals of education† (Kagan, 1990, p. 423); â€Å"psychologically held understandings, premises or propositions about the world that are felt to be true† (Richardson, 1996, p.103); and â€Å"generally refer to suppositions, commitments and ideologies† (Calderhead, 1996, p.715). Beliefs play an important role in many aspects of teaching as well as in life. They are involved in helping individuals make sense of the world, influencing how new information is perceived, and whether it is accepted or rejected. Teachers beliefs are a term usually used to refer to pedagogic beliefs or those beliefs of relevance to an individuals teaching (Borg 2001b). Teacher beliefs have been identified by Kagan (1992a) as tacit, often unconsciously held assumptions about students, about classrooms, and the academic material to be taught. The literature on teacher knowledge and beliefs from the primary and secondary levels has developed a number of terminological differences. Kagan (1990, p.456) highlighted this problem by noting: â€Å"Terms such as teacher cognition, self-reflection, knowledge and belief can be used to refer to different phenomena. Variation in the definition of a term can range from the superficial and idiosyncratic to the profound and theoretical†. The use of these varying terms makes it difficult to investigate in this area of teacher cognition. Pajares (1992) addressed this difficulty: Defining beliefs is at best a game of players choice. They travel in disguise and often under alias-attitudes, values judgments, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, explicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of practice, practical principals, perspectives, repertories of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few that can be found in the literature. (p.309) Defining beliefs is not a very easy task. There is a â€Å"bewildering array of terms† as Clandinin and Connelly (1987, p. 487) put forward including teachers teaching criteria, principles of practice, personal construct/theories/epistemologies, beliefs, perspectives, teachers conceptions, personal knowledge, and practical knowledge. 2.1.1 Belief Research in English Language Teaching The concept of belief, which has been a common feature of research papers in education for the past decade, has recently come into favor in ELT. In the field, various terms have been used to refer to the term ‘belief: pedagogical thoughts (Shavelson and Stern 1981), perspective (Zeichner, Tabachnick, Densmore, 1987), theoretical orientation (Kinzer, 1988), image (Calderhead, 1996), theoretical belief (Kinzer, 1988; Johnson, 1992; Smith 1996). Terms used in language teacher cognition research include theories for practice (Burns, 1996) which refer to the thinking and beliefs which are brought to bear on classroom processes; philosophical orientation and personal pedagogical system (Borg, 1998) which corresponds with stores of beliefs, knowledge, theories, assumptions and attitudes which shape teachers instructional decisions; maxims (Richards, 1996) to comprise personal working principles which reflect teachers individual philosophies of teaching; images (Johnson, 1994) which means general metaphors for thinking about teaching that represent beliefs about teaching and also act as models of action; conceptions of practice (Freeman, 1993) to cover ideas and actions teachers use to organize what they know and to map out what is possible; BAK (Woods, 1996) which includes the concepts beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge, In all those studies the core term on which there is focus is â€Å"belief†. Despite the popularity of the term, there is no consensus on meaning yet. The definition set forth by Rokeach (1968) claims that a belief is any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does and knowledge is a component of belief. Rokeach uses the term ‘attitude to refer to the beliefs teachers have about constructs. Richards and Lockhart (1996, p.30) state that â€Å"teachers beliefs systems are founded on the goals and values that teachers hold in relation to the content and process of teaching, and their understanding of the systems in which they work and their roles within it†. These beliefs and values serve as the background to much of teachers decision making action and hence constitute what has been termed the â€Å"culture of teaching†. Richards and Lockhart (1996) summarize those teachers beliefs systems, which are derived from a number of different sources. They are, a) their own experience as language learners, b) their experience of what works best for their learners, c) established practice, d) personality factors, e) educational based or research-based principles, f) principles derived from an approach or method (pp.30-31). Borg (2001b) discusses three aspects of the term belief: The truth element-drawing on research in the philosophy of knowledge, a belief is a mental state which has as its content a proposition that is accepted as true by the individual holding it, although the individual may recognize that alternative beliefs may be held by others. This is one of the key differences between belief and knowledge must actually be true in some external sense. The relationship between belief and behavior most definitions of belief propose that beliefs dispose or guide peoples thinking and action. Conscious versus unconscious beliefs on this point there is disagreement, with some maintaining that consciousness is inherent in the definition of belief, and others allowing for an individual to be conscious of some beliefs and unconscious of others. The field of language teaching has been one of tradition and transition since its beginning hundreds, indeed, by some accounts, thousands of years ago (Kelly, 1969; Howatt, 1984; Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Even though a much newer pursuit than the teaching of languages such as Greek and Latin or Chinese, the teaching of the English language has already been through many transitions in methodology. What are now considered traditional methods were once the innovations of their time, characterized by the attitudes and values of their creators, who recommended that other educators abandon one method and choose another, with unquestioning optimism, as though this latter method were the solution to their classroom concerns (Clarke, 1982). In the past 50 years alone, English language teaching has gone through a whirlwind of transitions in its methodology, from grammar translation to direct method, to audiolingualism, to cognitive code, and a host of variations in each. In recent years, the most substantive transition in English language teaching has taken place through a collection of practices, materials, and beliefs about teaching and learning that are known by many different names, e.g. communicative methodology, communicative language teaching, and the communicative approach (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Contemporarily, English teaching methodology is going through yet another transition. This transition, frequently referred to as the `post method condition (Kumaravadivelu, 2001), Research in the area of teacher thinking has grown rapidly particularly since the 1980s, with the consequence that the literature is vast and is often focused on very specific aspects of teaching. Nevertheless, the research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). The reasons are: first, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. By the mid 1980s, a rising view of teaching began to highlight the complex ways in which teachers think about their work as being shaped by their prior experiences as students, their ‘personal practical knowledge (Golombek, 1998). More recently the notion of work context has been recognized as central in shaping teachers â€Å"conceptions of their practices† (Freeman, 1993). Language teaching is defined as a dynamic process, which arises out of the meeting and interaction of different sets of principles: different rationalities. In this sense, a rationality is the inner logic which shapes the way in which participants perceive a situation and the goals which they will pursue in this situation (Tudor, 1998). Tudor proposes that to understand language teaching, a first step is to explore the different rationalities which are present in each situation in order to discover the reality the participants involved in. There are four different types of rationalities: those of the students and teachers, socio-cultural rationalities and then the rationality of methodology. While describing teacher rationalities, Tudor (1998) argues that research into subjective needs has led us to appreciate the uniqueness of each learners interaction with their language study. More recently something similar about the teachers has been realized. They, too will perceive and interact with methodology they are implementing in the light of their personality, attitudes, and life experience and the set of perceptions and goals which these give rise to. For this reason there is a need to listen to the teachers voices in understanding classroom practice. There is a need to understand teachers perceptions and the way in which these perceptions influence teachers classroom behaviors. The maxims (Richards, 1996) or the pedagogic principles (Breen et al.2001) teachers use are important in understanding their pedagogical actions. The reality of classroom teaching is how the teachers interpret official curricula or the recommended materials. Teachers are not skilled technicians who dutifully realize a given set of teaching procedures in accordance with the directives of a more or less distant authority. They are active participants in the creation of classroom realities and they do this on the basis of their own attitudes and beliefs, and their personal perceptions of interaction with their teaching situation. All teachers hold beliefs about their work, their students, their subject matter, and their roles and responsibilities. They are individuals with their personal perceptions and goals, which go to shape the rationality which will guide their actions in the classroom and their interaction with the context in which they are operating (Tudor, 1998, p. 324). A major goal of research on teachers thought processes is to increase our understanding of how teachers think and behave in the classroom. The drive for this area of research comes from the assumption that what teachers do is a reflection of what they know and believe, and that teacher knowledge and teacher thinking provide the underlying framework or schema which guides teachers classroom practices (Sutcliffe and Whitfield 1976, Westerman 1991, Flowerdew, Brock Hsia 1992, Kagan 1992a, Richards and Lockhart 1994, Bailey 1996, Woods 1998, Borg 1998, Richards 1998). Therefore, in order to understand teaching, we must understand how thoughts get carried into actions (Clark and Yinger 1977, Shavelson and Stern 1981, Clark and Peterson 1986, Johnson 1992, Nunan 1992). Pajares (1992) reviewed research on teacher beliefs and argued that ‘‘teachers beliefs can and should become an important focus of educational inquiry (p. 307). He then sketched numerous facets of beliefs and acknowledged that a variety of conceptions of educational beliefs appear in the literature. Citing Nespors (1987) influential work, he suggested that ‘‘beliefs are far more influential than knowledge in determining how individuals organize and define tasks and problems and are stronger predictors of behavior (p. 311). Studies on teacher beliefs have slowly gained prominence, especially with regard to teacher change issues. Guskey (1986), for example, examined 52 teachers who participated in teacher development programs and concluded that change in teachers beliefs ‘‘is likely to take place only after changes in student learning outcomes are evidenced (p. 7). In contrast, Richardson, Anders, Tidwell, and Lloyd (1991) found that change in beliefs preceded change in practices. The current view is that relationships between beliefs and practices are interactive and ongoing (Fullan, 1991; Richardson, 1996). Richardson (1996) even states that ‘‘In most current conceptions, the perceived relationship between beliefs and actions is interactive. Beliefs are thought to drive actions; however, experiences and reflection on action may lead to changes in and/or additions to beliefs (p. 104). Pajares (1992) promoted 16 ‘‘fundamental assumptions that may reasonably be made when initiating a study of teachers education beliefs (1992, p. 324). These assumptions include among others, the notions that (a) beliefs are formed early and tend to self perpetuate, persevering even against contradictions caused by reason, time, schooling, or experience; (b) individuals develop a belief system that houses all the beliefs acquired through the process of cultural transmission; (c) beliefs are instrumental in defining tasks and selecting the cognitive tools with which to interpret, plan, and make decisions regarding such tasks; (d) individuals beliefs strongly affect their behavior; and (e) knowledge and beliefs are inextricably intertwined (for complete discussion of all 16 assumptions, see Pajares, 1992, pp. 324-326). 2.2 Teacher Knowledge Research Meanwhile doubts arose also from the scientific community about a conception of professionalism that asked professionals (such as teachers) to just apply the theories and insights provided by others. Schà ¶n (1983, 1987) analyzed the work of various groups of professionals and concluded that they applied a certain amount of theoretical knowledge in their work, but that their behavior was not at all ‘‘rule governed and that they had no straightforward way to determine which behavior was adequate in specific circumstances. Schà ¶n contrasted this principle of ‘‘technical rationality to the principle of ‘‘reflection-in-action, which pertained to the thinking of the professional during professional activity and implied a continuing dialogue with the permanently changing situation. This situation does not present itself as a well-defined problem situation. On the contrary, defining the problem is itself one of the most difficult tasks of the professio nal. This recognition of the centrality of the teacher and the teachers knowledge and beliefs regarding each educational process, including educational innovations, is relatively recent (Calderhead, 1996). Birman, Desimone, Porter, Garet (2000), for example, searched for key features of effective professional development and, based on their research, reported that professional development should focus on deepening teacher knowledge in order to foster teacher learning and changes in practice. Similarly, Hawley and Valli (1999) considered the expansion and elaboration of teachers professional knowledge base as essential for their professional development. In the literature about teacher knowledge, various labels have been used, each indicating a relevant aspect of teacher knowledge. The labels illustrate mainly which aspect is considered the most important by the respective authors. Together, these labels give an overview of the way in which teacher knowledge has been studied to date. The most commonly used labels are ‘‘personal knowledge (Conelly and Clandinin, 1985; Elbaz, 1991), indicating that this knowledge is unique; ‘‘the wisdom of practice (Schwab, 1971), and in more recent publications, ‘‘professional craft knowledge (e.g., Brown and McIntyre, 1993; Shimahara, 1998), referring to a specific component of knowledge that is mainly the product of the teachers practical experience; ‘‘action oriented knowledge, indicating that this knowledge is for immediate use in teaching practice (Carter, 1990); ‘‘content and context related knowledge (Cochran, DeRuiter, King, 1993; Va n Driel, Verloop, De Vos, 1998); knowledge that is to a great extent ‘tacit (Calderhead and Robson, 1991); and knowledge that is based on reflection on experiences (Grimmet and MacKinnon, 1992). It is important to realize that in the label ‘teacher knowledge, the concept ‘knowledge is used as an overarching, inclusive concept, summarizing a large variety of cognitions, from conscious and well-balanced opinions to unconscious and unreflected intuitions. This is related to the fact that, in the mind of the teacher, components of knowledge, beliefs, conceptions, and intuitions are inextricably intertwined. As Alexander, Schallert, and Hare (1991) noted, the term ‘knowledge is mostly used to encompass ‘‘all that a person knows or believes to be true, whether or not it is verified as true in some sort of objective or external way (p. 317). This is particularly relevant with respect to research on teacher knowledge. In investigating teacher knowledge, the main focus of attention is on the complex totality of cognitions, the ways this develops, and the way this interacts with teacher behavior in the classroom. Following Pajares (1992), knowledge and beliefs are seen as inseparable, although beliefs are seen roughly as referring to personal values, attitudes, and ideologies, and knowledge to a teachers more factual propositions (Meijer, Verloop, Beijaard, 2001). 2.2.1 Teachers Knowledge and Beliefs About Teaching In his extensive review of the literature, Calderhead (1996) found that many different kinds of knowledge have been described as underpinning effective teaching. The main forms are those related to the subject being taught, to teaching methods, and to the ways in which students develop and learn. The extent to which teachers have conscious access to this knowledge is, however, far from clear. Some researchers argue that much of this knowledge is implicit or tacit, derived from experience rather than from any conceptual framework. The research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly work concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs, which reflect their experiences, is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). First, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. Pajares (1992) attempts to clarify the confusion with the distinction between knowledge and belief. However, as many researchers have found, it is not so much that knowledge differs from beliefs, but that beliefs themselves constitute a form of knowledge. In his attempts to characterize beliefs, Nespor (1987) provides some distinctions between beliefs and knowledge. He singles out four features of the construct previously identified by Abelson (1979) and considers them in relation to teachers: Existential presumptions or personal truths are generally unaffected by persuasion and are perceived by the teacher as being beyond his/her control or influence. Alternativity is a feature of beliefs that would include situations such as when teachers attempt to establish an instructional format of which they have no direct experience but which they might consider ideal. Belief systems can be said to rely much more heavily on affective and evaluative components than knowledge systems. Teachers values and feelings often affect what and how they teach and may conflict with their knowledge. Belief systems are composed mainly of episodically stored material which is derived from personal experience, episodes or events which continue to influence the comprehension of events at a later time. Whereas beliefs reside in episodic memory, knowledge is semantically stored. A further distinction between beliefs and knowledge, notes Nespor (1987, p.313), is that, while knowledge often changes, beliefs are static. As well, whereas knowledge can be evaluated or judged, such is not the case with beliefs as there is usually a lack of consensus about how they are to be evaluated. Furthermore, there do not appear to be any clear rules for determining the relevance of beliefs to real world events. While there is no doubt other distinctions can be made between the two constructs, a better understanding may be gained by exploring the relationship between the two and by considering beliefs as a form of knowledge. This form of knowledge could be referred to as personal knowledge. Kagan (1992a) refers to beliefs as a particularly provocative form of personal knowledge and argues that most of a teachers professional knowledge can be regarded more accurately as belief. According to Kagan, this knowledge grows richer and more coherent as a teachers experience in classrooms grows and thus forms a highly personalized pedagogy or belief system that actually constrains the teachers perception, judgment, and behavior. In terms of beliefs being personal knowledge, Kagan explains: A teachers knowledge of his or her profession is situated in three important ways: in context (it is related to specific groups of students), in content (it is related to particular academic material to be taught), and in person (it is embedded within the teachers unique belief system) (p.74). Like Clark (1988) who equates ‘implicit theories with beliefs, Nespor (1987) explains how beliefs become personal pedagogies or theories to guide teachers practices: Teachers beliefs play a major role in defining teaching tasks and organizing the knowledge and information relevant to those tasks. But why should this be so? Why wouldnt research-based knowledge or academic theory serve this purpose just as well? The answer suggested here is that the contexts and environments within which teachers work, and many of the problems they encounter, are ill-defined and deeply entangled, and that beliefs are peculiarly suited for making sense of such contexts. (p.324) Munby (1982) also equates implicit theories with teachers beliefs. Clark and Peterson (1986) in their review of the literature on teachers thought processes, argue that teachers theories and beliefs represent a rich store of knowledge. Teachers make sense of their complex world and respond to it by forming a complex system of personal and professional knowledge and theories which, as Kagan (1992a) describes, are often tacit and unconsciously held assumptions about students, classrooms and the material to be taught. 2.2.1.1 Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge Throughout this study the term BAK is used as an inclusive term to refer to beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge. Therefore, the following section describes the rationale behind using this term. In the discussion so far, approaches which divide aspects of teacher cognition were examined in separate categories. A more recent strand of research, however, challenges the categorical distinctions outlined above. Woods (1996) suggests that these dichotomies do not accurately reflect the relationship between Teachers beliefs, assumptions and knowledge and their practices in the classroom. In order to take appropriate action, people need to understand; and to understand they need knowledge about the world and specifically about the situation they are in (Woods, 1996, p. 59). Woods (1996) develops a multidimensional cycle of planning and decision making within teaching. He describes three phases of assessment, planning and implementation which operate recursively to inform different hierarchical levels of the teaching process going from the most local level of discrete events in the lesson plan to the most global level of whole course planning (p. 139). Woodss analysis of interview data suggests that knowledge structures and belief systems ‘‘are not composed of independent elements, but [are] rather structured, with certain aspects implying or presupposing others (p. 200). Woods proposes a model to signify the evolving system of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge (BAK) that recursively informs or is informed by the context of teaching: the BAK was part of the perceiving and organizing of the decisions. Woods has demonstrated that language teachers create and maintain background networks of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge which constitute a valid theory of teaching and learning. These background theoretical networks are grounded in every level of routine classroom practice in much the same way that educational theory is grounded in the systematic collection of empirical data. This construct (BAK) is supported by MacDonaldo, Badger and White (2001). They also suggest that while there is some support for a categorical di stinction between theory and practice in language education, it is suggested that the beliefs, assumptions and knowledge of teachers are in fact inextricably bound up with what goes on in the classroom. 2.3 Research on the Relationship between Teachers Beliefs, Instructional decisions, and Practices Beliefs are manifested in teaching practices because teachers instruction tends to reflect their beliefs. Pajares (1992) and Richardson (1996) investigated the relationship between teachers beliefs and their teaching practices, concluding that teachers beliefs were reflected in their actions, decisions and classroom practices. Kagan (1992a) also supported Pajares and Richardsons claim that teachers beliefs served as a vital role in influencing the nature of the instruction. In her study, Johnson (1992) examined the relationship between ESL teachers defined, theoretical beliefs about second language learning as well as teaching and instructional practices during literacy instruction for non-native speakers of English. Three tasks, such as an ideal instructional protocol, a lesson plan analysis, and a beliefs inventory were used to determine how much ESL teachers beliefs were reflected in skill-based, rule-based, and function-based orientations. The findings in Johnsons study showed that ESL teachers defined beliefs were congruent with their theoretical orientations, and teachers with different theoretical orientations gave quite different instruction for ESL students. Therefore, her study concluded that overall, teachers had different teaching approaches, selections of teaching materials, and images of teachers and students according to their beliefs about learning and teaching. For example, a teacher whose dominant theoretical orientation was function-b ased focused generally on comprehending the main idea, following a pattern of pre-reading as well as post-reading questions, and discussion as usual reading activities in her instruction. In addition, Smiths (1996) study explored the relationship between nine experienced ESL teachers beliefs and their decision-making in classroom practices. The result of her study showed that teachers articulated theoretical beliefs were consistent with their instructional planning and decisions. For example, those teachers who believed in communication of meaning as a primary goal in learning a language designed and implemented tasks which promoted student-interaction and meaningful communication, such as small-group or pair activities. Golombek (1998) examined how two in-service ESL teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice through a description of a tension each teacher faced in the classroom. The teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice by serving as a kind of interpretive framework through which they made sense of their classrooms as they recounted their experiences and made this knowledge explicit. The results of this study suggested that L2 teacher educators should recognize that L2 teachers personal practical knowledge is embodied in individuals. For this reason, personal practical knowledge is important to acknowledge in L2 teacher education practice and research. Similarly, in his article Borg (2001a) presents two cases which illustrate the extent to which teachers perceptions of their knowledge about grammar emerged as one of the factors which influences teachers instructional decisions in teaching grammar. The two case studies suggested clearly that teachers self-perceptions of their knowledge about grammar had an impact on their work. Two conclusions emergi Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching 2.1 Belief Research In the mid-1970s a new body of research began to emerge that worked to describe teachers thoughts, judgments and decisions as the cognitive processes that shaped their behaviors (Calderhead, 1996, Clark and Peterson, 1986; Dann, 1990). As a consequence of this, a surge of interest in the area of teacher belief systems has appeared (Pajares, 1992). This research â€Å"has helped to identify the nature and complexity of the teachers work , and helped to provide ways of thinking about the processes of change and support† (Calderhead, 1996, p.721). Researchers found that teaching could not be characterized simply as behaviors that were linked to thinking done before and during the activity but rather that the thought process of teaching included a much wider and richer mental context. As Shavelson and Stern (1981, p.479) explained, research on teacher cognition made â€Å"the basic assumption that teachers thoughts, judgments, and decisions guide their teaching behavior†. Kagan (1990, p. 420) noted that teacher cognition is somewhat ambiguous, because researchers invoke the term to refer to different products, including â€Å"teachers interactive thoughts during instruction; thought during lesson planning, implicit beliefs about students, classrooms and learning; reflections about their own teaching performance; automized routines and activities that form their instructional repertoire; and self-awareness of procedures they use to solve classrooms problems†. Currently, there is increasing recognition that the beliefs individuals hold are the best indicators of the decisions they make during the course of everyday life (Bandura, 1986). Pajares (1992, p. 307) argues that the investigation of teachers beliefs should be a focus of educational research and can inform educational practice in ways that prevailing research agendas have not and cannot. Educational researchers trying to understand the nature of teaching and learning in classrooms have usefully exploited this focus on belief systems. The research of Jakubowski and Tobin (1991) suggests that teachers metaphors and beliefs not only influence what teachers do in the classroom, but that changes in these same metaphors and beliefs can result in changes in their practices. A belief can be defined as a representation of the information someone holds about an object, or a â€Å"persons understanding of himself and his environment† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.131). This object can â€Å"be a person, a group of people, an institution, a behavior, a policy, an event, etc., and the associated attribute may be any object, trait, property, quality, characteristic, outcome, or event† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.12). While Rokeach (1972) defined a belief as â€Å"any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does, capable of being preceded by the phrase ‘I believe that† (p.113), Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined a belief system as a hierarchy of beliefs according to the strength about a particular object. Researchers exploring teachers beliefs at the primary and secondary levels have used a number of definitions: â€Å"the highly personal ways in which a teacher understands classrooms, students, the nature of learning, the teachers role in the classroom, and the goals of education† (Kagan, 1990, p. 423); â€Å"psychologically held understandings, premises or propositions about the world that are felt to be true† (Richardson, 1996, p.103); and â€Å"generally refer to suppositions, commitments and ideologies† (Calderhead, 1996, p.715). Beliefs play an important role in many aspects of teaching as well as in life. They are involved in helping individuals make sense of the world, influencing how new information is perceived, and whether it is accepted or rejected. Teachers beliefs are a term usually used to refer to pedagogic beliefs or those beliefs of relevance to an individuals teaching (Borg 2001b). Teacher beliefs have been identified by Kagan (1992a) as tacit, often unconsciously held assumptions about students, about classrooms, and the academic material to be taught. The literature on teacher knowledge and beliefs from the primary and secondary levels has developed a number of terminological differences. Kagan (1990, p.456) highlighted this problem by noting: â€Å"Terms such as teacher cognition, self-reflection, knowledge and belief can be used to refer to different phenomena. Variation in the definition of a term can range from the superficial and idiosyncratic to the profound and theoretical†. The use of these varying terms makes it difficult to investigate in this area of teacher cognition. Pajares (1992) addressed this difficulty: Defining beliefs is at best a game of players choice. They travel in disguise and often under alias-attitudes, values judgments, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, explicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of practice, practical principals, perspectives, repertories of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few that can be found in the literature. (p.309) Defining beliefs is not a very easy task. There is a â€Å"bewildering array of terms† as Clandinin and Connelly (1987, p. 487) put forward including teachers teaching criteria, principles of practice, personal construct/theories/epistemologies, beliefs, perspectives, teachers conceptions, personal knowledge, and practical knowledge. 2.1.1 Belief Research in English Language Teaching The concept of belief, which has been a common feature of research papers in education for the past decade, has recently come into favor in ELT. In the field, various terms have been used to refer to the term ‘belief: pedagogical thoughts (Shavelson and Stern 1981), perspective (Zeichner, Tabachnick, Densmore, 1987), theoretical orientation (Kinzer, 1988), image (Calderhead, 1996), theoretical belief (Kinzer, 1988; Johnson, 1992; Smith 1996). Terms used in language teacher cognition research include theories for practice (Burns, 1996) which refer to the thinking and beliefs which are brought to bear on classroom processes; philosophical orientation and personal pedagogical system (Borg, 1998) which corresponds with stores of beliefs, knowledge, theories, assumptions and attitudes which shape teachers instructional decisions; maxims (Richards, 1996) to comprise personal working principles which reflect teachers individual philosophies of teaching; images (Johnson, 1994) which means general metaphors for thinking about teaching that represent beliefs about teaching and also act as models of action; conceptions of practice (Freeman, 1993) to cover ideas and actions teachers use to organize what they know and to map out what is possible; BAK (Woods, 1996) which includes the concepts beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge, In all those studies the core term on which there is focus is â€Å"belief†. Despite the popularity of the term, there is no consensus on meaning yet. The definition set forth by Rokeach (1968) claims that a belief is any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does and knowledge is a component of belief. Rokeach uses the term ‘attitude to refer to the beliefs teachers have about constructs. Richards and Lockhart (1996, p.30) state that â€Å"teachers beliefs systems are founded on the goals and values that teachers hold in relation to the content and process of teaching, and their understanding of the systems in which they work and their roles within it†. These beliefs and values serve as the background to much of teachers decision making action and hence constitute what has been termed the â€Å"culture of teaching†. Richards and Lockhart (1996) summarize those teachers beliefs systems, which are derived from a number of different sources. They are, a) their own experience as language learners, b) their experience of what works best for their learners, c) established practice, d) personality factors, e) educational based or research-based principles, f) principles derived from an approach or method (pp.30-31). Borg (2001b) discusses three aspects of the term belief: The truth element-drawing on research in the philosophy of knowledge, a belief is a mental state which has as its content a proposition that is accepted as true by the individual holding it, although the individual may recognize that alternative beliefs may be held by others. This is one of the key differences between belief and knowledge must actually be true in some external sense. The relationship between belief and behavior most definitions of belief propose that beliefs dispose or guide peoples thinking and action. Conscious versus unconscious beliefs on this point there is disagreement, with some maintaining that consciousness is inherent in the definition of belief, and others allowing for an individual to be conscious of some beliefs and unconscious of others. The field of language teaching has been one of tradition and transition since its beginning hundreds, indeed, by some accounts, thousands of years ago (Kelly, 1969; Howatt, 1984; Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Even though a much newer pursuit than the teaching of languages such as Greek and Latin or Chinese, the teaching of the English language has already been through many transitions in methodology. What are now considered traditional methods were once the innovations of their time, characterized by the attitudes and values of their creators, who recommended that other educators abandon one method and choose another, with unquestioning optimism, as though this latter method were the solution to their classroom concerns (Clarke, 1982). In the past 50 years alone, English language teaching has gone through a whirlwind of transitions in its methodology, from grammar translation to direct method, to audiolingualism, to cognitive code, and a host of variations in each. In recent years, the most substantive transition in English language teaching has taken place through a collection of practices, materials, and beliefs about teaching and learning that are known by many different names, e.g. communicative methodology, communicative language teaching, and the communicative approach (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Contemporarily, English teaching methodology is going through yet another transition. This transition, frequently referred to as the `post method condition (Kumaravadivelu, 2001), Research in the area of teacher thinking has grown rapidly particularly since the 1980s, with the consequence that the literature is vast and is often focused on very specific aspects of teaching. Nevertheless, the research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). The reasons are: first, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. By the mid 1980s, a rising view of teaching began to highlight the complex ways in which teachers think about their work as being shaped by their prior experiences as students, their ‘personal practical knowledge (Golombek, 1998). More recently the notion of work context has been recognized as central in shaping teachers â€Å"conceptions of their practices† (Freeman, 1993). Language teaching is defined as a dynamic process, which arises out of the meeting and interaction of different sets of principles: different rationalities. In this sense, a rationality is the inner logic which shapes the way in which participants perceive a situation and the goals which they will pursue in this situation (Tudor, 1998). Tudor proposes that to understand language teaching, a first step is to explore the different rationalities which are present in each situation in order to discover the reality the participants involved in. There are four different types of rationalities: those of the students and teachers, socio-cultural rationalities and then the rationality of methodology. While describing teacher rationalities, Tudor (1998) argues that research into subjective needs has led us to appreciate the uniqueness of each learners interaction with their language study. More recently something similar about the teachers has been realized. They, too will perceive and interact with methodology they are implementing in the light of their personality, attitudes, and life experience and the set of perceptions and goals which these give rise to. For this reason there is a need to listen to the teachers voices in understanding classroom practice. There is a need to understand teachers perceptions and the way in which these perceptions influence teachers classroom behaviors. The maxims (Richards, 1996) or the pedagogic principles (Breen et al.2001) teachers use are important in understanding their pedagogical actions. The reality of classroom teaching is how the teachers interpret official curricula or the recommended materials. Teachers are not skilled technicians who dutifully realize a given set of teaching procedures in accordance with the directives of a more or less distant authority. They are active participants in the creation of classroom realities and they do this on the basis of their own attitudes and beliefs, and their personal perceptions of interaction with their teaching situation. All teachers hold beliefs about their work, their students, their subject matter, and their roles and responsibilities. They are individuals with their personal perceptions and goals, which go to shape the rationality which will guide their actions in the classroom and their interaction with the context in which they are operating (Tudor, 1998, p. 324). A major goal of research on teachers thought processes is to increase our understanding of how teachers think and behave in the classroom. The drive for this area of research comes from the assumption that what teachers do is a reflection of what they know and believe, and that teacher knowledge and teacher thinking provide the underlying framework or schema which guides teachers classroom practices (Sutcliffe and Whitfield 1976, Westerman 1991, Flowerdew, Brock Hsia 1992, Kagan 1992a, Richards and Lockhart 1994, Bailey 1996, Woods 1998, Borg 1998, Richards 1998). Therefore, in order to understand teaching, we must understand how thoughts get carried into actions (Clark and Yinger 1977, Shavelson and Stern 1981, Clark and Peterson 1986, Johnson 1992, Nunan 1992). Pajares (1992) reviewed research on teacher beliefs and argued that ‘‘teachers beliefs can and should become an important focus of educational inquiry (p. 307). He then sketched numerous facets of beliefs and acknowledged that a variety of conceptions of educational beliefs appear in the literature. Citing Nespors (1987) influential work, he suggested that ‘‘beliefs are far more influential than knowledge in determining how individuals organize and define tasks and problems and are stronger predictors of behavior (p. 311). Studies on teacher beliefs have slowly gained prominence, especially with regard to teacher change issues. Guskey (1986), for example, examined 52 teachers who participated in teacher development programs and concluded that change in teachers beliefs ‘‘is likely to take place only after changes in student learning outcomes are evidenced (p. 7). In contrast, Richardson, Anders, Tidwell, and Lloyd (1991) found that change in beliefs preceded change in practices. The current view is that relationships between beliefs and practices are interactive and ongoing (Fullan, 1991; Richardson, 1996). Richardson (1996) even states that ‘‘In most current conceptions, the perceived relationship between beliefs and actions is interactive. Beliefs are thought to drive actions; however, experiences and reflection on action may lead to changes in and/or additions to beliefs (p. 104). Pajares (1992) promoted 16 ‘‘fundamental assumptions that may reasonably be made when initiating a study of teachers education beliefs (1992, p. 324). These assumptions include among others, the notions that (a) beliefs are formed early and tend to self perpetuate, persevering even against contradictions caused by reason, time, schooling, or experience; (b) individuals develop a belief system that houses all the beliefs acquired through the process of cultural transmission; (c) beliefs are instrumental in defining tasks and selecting the cognitive tools with which to interpret, plan, and make decisions regarding such tasks; (d) individuals beliefs strongly affect their behavior; and (e) knowledge and beliefs are inextricably intertwined (for complete discussion of all 16 assumptions, see Pajares, 1992, pp. 324-326). 2.2 Teacher Knowledge Research Meanwhile doubts arose also from the scientific community about a conception of professionalism that asked professionals (such as teachers) to just apply the theories and insights provided by others. Schà ¶n (1983, 1987) analyzed the work of various groups of professionals and concluded that they applied a certain amount of theoretical knowledge in their work, but that their behavior was not at all ‘‘rule governed and that they had no straightforward way to determine which behavior was adequate in specific circumstances. Schà ¶n contrasted this principle of ‘‘technical rationality to the principle of ‘‘reflection-in-action, which pertained to the thinking of the professional during professional activity and implied a continuing dialogue with the permanently changing situation. This situation does not present itself as a well-defined problem situation. On the contrary, defining the problem is itself one of the most difficult tasks of the professio nal. This recognition of the centrality of the teacher and the teachers knowledge and beliefs regarding each educational process, including educational innovations, is relatively recent (Calderhead, 1996). Birman, Desimone, Porter, Garet (2000), for example, searched for key features of effective professional development and, based on their research, reported that professional development should focus on deepening teacher knowledge in order to foster teacher learning and changes in practice. Similarly, Hawley and Valli (1999) considered the expansion and elaboration of teachers professional knowledge base as essential for their professional development. In the literature about teacher knowledge, various labels have been used, each indicating a relevant aspect of teacher knowledge. The labels illustrate mainly which aspect is considered the most important by the respective authors. Together, these labels give an overview of the way in which teacher knowledge has been studied to date. The most commonly used labels are ‘‘personal knowledge (Conelly and Clandinin, 1985; Elbaz, 1991), indicating that this knowledge is unique; ‘‘the wisdom of practice (Schwab, 1971), and in more recent publications, ‘‘professional craft knowledge (e.g., Brown and McIntyre, 1993; Shimahara, 1998), referring to a specific component of knowledge that is mainly the product of the teachers practical experience; ‘‘action oriented knowledge, indicating that this knowledge is for immediate use in teaching practice (Carter, 1990); ‘‘content and context related knowledge (Cochran, DeRuiter, King, 1993; Va n Driel, Verloop, De Vos, 1998); knowledge that is to a great extent ‘tacit (Calderhead and Robson, 1991); and knowledge that is based on reflection on experiences (Grimmet and MacKinnon, 1992). It is important to realize that in the label ‘teacher knowledge, the concept ‘knowledge is used as an overarching, inclusive concept, summarizing a large variety of cognitions, from conscious and well-balanced opinions to unconscious and unreflected intuitions. This is related to the fact that, in the mind of the teacher, components of knowledge, beliefs, conceptions, and intuitions are inextricably intertwined. As Alexander, Schallert, and Hare (1991) noted, the term ‘knowledge is mostly used to encompass ‘‘all that a person knows or believes to be true, whether or not it is verified as true in some sort of objective or external way (p. 317). This is particularly relevant with respect to research on teacher knowledge. In investigating teacher knowledge, the main focus of attention is on the complex totality of cognitions, the ways this develops, and the way this interacts with teacher behavior in the classroom. Following Pajares (1992), knowledge and beliefs are seen as inseparable, although beliefs are seen roughly as referring to personal values, attitudes, and ideologies, and knowledge to a teachers more factual propositions (Meijer, Verloop, Beijaard, 2001). 2.2.1 Teachers Knowledge and Beliefs About Teaching In his extensive review of the literature, Calderhead (1996) found that many different kinds of knowledge have been described as underpinning effective teaching. The main forms are those related to the subject being taught, to teaching methods, and to the ways in which students develop and learn. The extent to which teachers have conscious access to this knowledge is, however, far from clear. Some researchers argue that much of this knowledge is implicit or tacit, derived from experience rather than from any conceptual framework. The research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly work concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs, which reflect their experiences, is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). First, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. Pajares (1992) attempts to clarify the confusion with the distinction between knowledge and belief. However, as many researchers have found, it is not so much that knowledge differs from beliefs, but that beliefs themselves constitute a form of knowledge. In his attempts to characterize beliefs, Nespor (1987) provides some distinctions between beliefs and knowledge. He singles out four features of the construct previously identified by Abelson (1979) and considers them in relation to teachers: Existential presumptions or personal truths are generally unaffected by persuasion and are perceived by the teacher as being beyond his/her control or influence. Alternativity is a feature of beliefs that would include situations such as when teachers attempt to establish an instructional format of which they have no direct experience but which they might consider ideal. Belief systems can be said to rely much more heavily on affective and evaluative components than knowledge systems. Teachers values and feelings often affect what and how they teach and may conflict with their knowledge. Belief systems are composed mainly of episodically stored material which is derived from personal experience, episodes or events which continue to influence the comprehension of events at a later time. Whereas beliefs reside in episodic memory, knowledge is semantically stored. A further distinction between beliefs and knowledge, notes Nespor (1987, p.313), is that, while knowledge often changes, beliefs are static. As well, whereas knowledge can be evaluated or judged, such is not the case with beliefs as there is usually a lack of consensus about how they are to be evaluated. Furthermore, there do not appear to be any clear rules for determining the relevance of beliefs to real world events. While there is no doubt other distinctions can be made between the two constructs, a better understanding may be gained by exploring the relationship between the two and by considering beliefs as a form of knowledge. This form of knowledge could be referred to as personal knowledge. Kagan (1992a) refers to beliefs as a particularly provocative form of personal knowledge and argues that most of a teachers professional knowledge can be regarded more accurately as belief. According to Kagan, this knowledge grows richer and more coherent as a teachers experience in classrooms grows and thus forms a highly personalized pedagogy or belief system that actually constrains the teachers perception, judgment, and behavior. In terms of beliefs being personal knowledge, Kagan explains: A teachers knowledge of his or her profession is situated in three important ways: in context (it is related to specific groups of students), in content (it is related to particular academic material to be taught), and in person (it is embedded within the teachers unique belief system) (p.74). Like Clark (1988) who equates ‘implicit theories with beliefs, Nespor (1987) explains how beliefs become personal pedagogies or theories to guide teachers practices: Teachers beliefs play a major role in defining teaching tasks and organizing the knowledge and information relevant to those tasks. But why should this be so? Why wouldnt research-based knowledge or academic theory serve this purpose just as well? The answer suggested here is that the contexts and environments within which teachers work, and many of the problems they encounter, are ill-defined and deeply entangled, and that beliefs are peculiarly suited for making sense of such contexts. (p.324) Munby (1982) also equates implicit theories with teachers beliefs. Clark and Peterson (1986) in their review of the literature on teachers thought processes, argue that teachers theories and beliefs represent a rich store of knowledge. Teachers make sense of their complex world and respond to it by forming a complex system of personal and professional knowledge and theories which, as Kagan (1992a) describes, are often tacit and unconsciously held assumptions about students, classrooms and the material to be taught. 2.2.1.1 Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge Throughout this study the term BAK is used as an inclusive term to refer to beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge. Therefore, the following section describes the rationale behind using this term. In the discussion so far, approaches which divide aspects of teacher cognition were examined in separate categories. A more recent strand of research, however, challenges the categorical distinctions outlined above. Woods (1996) suggests that these dichotomies do not accurately reflect the relationship between Teachers beliefs, assumptions and knowledge and their practices in the classroom. In order to take appropriate action, people need to understand; and to understand they need knowledge about the world and specifically about the situation they are in (Woods, 1996, p. 59). Woods (1996) develops a multidimensional cycle of planning and decision making within teaching. He describes three phases of assessment, planning and implementation which operate recursively to inform different hierarchical levels of the teaching process going from the most local level of discrete events in the lesson plan to the most global level of whole course planning (p. 139). Woodss analysis of interview data suggests that knowledge structures and belief systems ‘‘are not composed of independent elements, but [are] rather structured, with certain aspects implying or presupposing others (p. 200). Woods proposes a model to signify the evolving system of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge (BAK) that recursively informs or is informed by the context of teaching: the BAK was part of the perceiving and organizing of the decisions. Woods has demonstrated that language teachers create and maintain background networks of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge which constitute a valid theory of teaching and learning. These background theoretical networks are grounded in every level of routine classroom practice in much the same way that educational theory is grounded in the systematic collection of empirical data. This construct (BAK) is supported by MacDonaldo, Badger and White (2001). They also suggest that while there is some support for a categorical di stinction between theory and practice in language education, it is suggested that the beliefs, assumptions and knowledge of teachers are in fact inextricably bound up with what goes on in the classroom. 2.3 Research on the Relationship between Teachers Beliefs, Instructional decisions, and Practices Beliefs are manifested in teaching practices because teachers instruction tends to reflect their beliefs. Pajares (1992) and Richardson (1996) investigated the relationship between teachers beliefs and their teaching practices, concluding that teachers beliefs were reflected in their actions, decisions and classroom practices. Kagan (1992a) also supported Pajares and Richardsons claim that teachers beliefs served as a vital role in influencing the nature of the instruction. In her study, Johnson (1992) examined the relationship between ESL teachers defined, theoretical beliefs about second language learning as well as teaching and instructional practices during literacy instruction for non-native speakers of English. Three tasks, such as an ideal instructional protocol, a lesson plan analysis, and a beliefs inventory were used to determine how much ESL teachers beliefs were reflected in skill-based, rule-based, and function-based orientations. The findings in Johnsons study showed that ESL teachers defined beliefs were congruent with their theoretical orientations, and teachers with different theoretical orientations gave quite different instruction for ESL students. Therefore, her study concluded that overall, teachers had different teaching approaches, selections of teaching materials, and images of teachers and students according to their beliefs about learning and teaching. For example, a teacher whose dominant theoretical orientation was function-b ased focused generally on comprehending the main idea, following a pattern of pre-reading as well as post-reading questions, and discussion as usual reading activities in her instruction. In addition, Smiths (1996) study explored the relationship between nine experienced ESL teachers beliefs and their decision-making in classroom practices. The result of her study showed that teachers articulated theoretical beliefs were consistent with their instructional planning and decisions. For example, those teachers who believed in communication of meaning as a primary goal in learning a language designed and implemented tasks which promoted student-interaction and meaningful communication, such as small-group or pair activities. Golombek (1998) examined how two in-service ESL teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice through a description of a tension each teacher faced in the classroom. The teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice by serving as a kind of interpretive framework through which they made sense of their classrooms as they recounted their experiences and made this knowledge explicit. The results of this study suggested that L2 teacher educators should recognize that L2 teachers personal practical knowledge is embodied in individuals. For this reason, personal practical knowledge is important to acknowledge in L2 teacher education practice and research. Similarly, in his article Borg (2001a) presents two cases which illustrate the extent to which teachers perceptions of their knowledge about grammar emerged as one of the factors which influences teachers instructional decisions in teaching grammar. The two case studies suggested clearly that teachers self-perceptions of their knowledge about grammar had an impact on their work. Two conclusions emergi